November 1 Reading Assignment: Enlightenment Rhetoric, John Locke, Mary Astell

This portion of the reading was interesting, in that during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, rhetoric and language was building off of the key important practices of the Renaissance to strengthen and build a stronger, coherent sense of language within society. During this time period, huge revolutions in science, philosophy, and politics were being spread, and the importance of discovering true knowledge and truth was paramount to a successful human nature. This is significant, because as language was evolving, it greatly affected the evolution and use of rhetoric, as well.

In The Rhetorical Tradition, Bizzell stresses that there was a huge shift in the conception of logic, which was and is a huge part of rhetoric in its entirety. She stresses that although ancient rhetoricians stressed the sole importance of delivery and style to alter the ethos of the writer, science and physical knowledge became the foundation for establishing ethos. During this time period, the Ciceronian conception of rhetoric became the foundation for language.

During the Enlightenment period, history, poetry, and literary criticism were important fields of study, which sparked the Elocution Movement, which focused on a different sort of delivery, teaching the importance of things such as grammar and syntactical correctness. The sections about Francis Bacon are interesting, in that they discuss his use of science and push for advanced learning changed the human intellect during this time period, emphasizing memory, imagination, and reason to create good rhetoric.

John Locke was a hugely profound scholar during this time. Not a rhetorician, his philosophies provided society with moving knowledge on subject matter including politics and searching for truth within the physical world, yet gaining knowledge as a psychological phenomenon. During this time period, it seemed as if there was more stress put upon the development of good pathos, because many of the teachings and writings during this time period discussed the importance of discussing emotional contexts.

Mary Astell was quite interesting to read about, as she was considered the "first English feminist" by other scholars and intellectual members of society. Although she stressed the importance of religion, piety, and lead a very religious lifestyle, she was important for spreading the voice of women within society during the eighteenth century. Although she struggled to become a writer, she wrote many books on religion, politics, and lifestyles, which showed her ability to tackle controversial issues within society and write profound things. She also stressed that men and women are intellectually equal, helping to push women's rights forward, as she expressed various important aspects of womanhood that were necessary in becoming good rhetoricians and speakers.

The assigned readings for this day are interesting, in that although the Renaissance pushed many intellectual ideas forward, the Enlightenment time period was a crucial point in honing these ideas and increasing the importance of scientific knowledge.

Research Essay #2

Katherine Lee 11106264

English 360, Section 1

October 24, 2011

Research Essay 2

Historical Alteration of Rhetoric

            The field of rhetoric, both in its oral and written form, is and has been constantly changing, which is emphasized in Patricia Bizzell’s The Rhetorical Tradition, Walter Ong’s The Orality of Lanugage, and represented within Peter Ramus’ From Arguments in Rhetoric Against Quintilian. The transition of oral rhetoric during the classical era to written work in the Renaissance era, have truly altered the world of rhetoric. Overall, the time period of the Renaissance, ranging from the fourteenth to the seventeenth centuries, is responsible for the more flexible influx of style and writing, which modern society is more accustomed to versus the oral traditions stemming from the classical and medieval time periods. As more academic scopes and ways of communication were being explored during the rise of the Renaissance, the stress upon the skill set of ancient oration and rhetoric lost its zeal, as writing became more paramount and more of an influential way to convey thought, feeling, and argument.

Historical writing is an enriching example of these said changes, and are examples of how culturally different time periods have altered rhetoric and its influence on the masses of people in society as a whole. Though the medieval time period, spanning for a thousand years, was a true introduction to the survival, as well as development of the world of rhetoric after the fall of Rome, the rise of the Renaissance was one of the most pivotal turning points for scholastic study as a whole. Society was transitioning from solely relying on oral speech to experimenting more with the production of written works. While the Roman Catholic Church was still a hugely deciding factor for many cultural aspects within medieval society, the emergence of the Renaissance during the fourteenth century until the seventeenth century changed the intellectual world entirely. Perhaps, the largest and most beneficial aspect in this alteration of language is “the relationship of study itself to writing,” because a given audience is able to retain words within a page, rather than focus upon the easily forgotten arguments made within oral rhetoric (Ong 8). It is also easily arguable that what is verbally spoken faces the threat of becoming lost in translation, contributing to the notion of an apophatic description, because “you cannot without serious and disabling distortion describe a primary phenomenon by starting with a subsequent secondary phenomenon and paring away the differences…you can never become aware of the real differences at all,” without the physical, written language, and this belief contributed to the decrease in the usage of oral rhetoric (Ong 13). The introduction of new scopes of rhetoric, including humanism, the salon society, and the stress on the importance of the written word, was becoming hugely popular (Bizzell 555). The Renaissance was designated entirely for discovering individual intellect, and there was a huge stray from the Roman Catholic Church, and “approaches to studying literature, history, and science” was developing (Bizzell 555). The broadening of human interests in various important topics is responsible for these great rhetorical shifts during the Renaissance period.

During this time period, the spread of Scholasticism, or the importance of divine truth and educational thinking, was fluctuating throughout Italy. The study of style and language was becoming far more important, as professions within areas of law and other notable subjects, required a higher, more realistic level of thinking. Rather, language and writing was becoming more sophisticated. Scholars, including Francis Bacon, demoted “rhetoric to a technical skill that will simply help the one who knows convey knowledge by scientific means,” and this ancient practice of persuasion and oration was seen as very limiting (Bizzell 575). As Walter Ong, author of The Orality of Language argues, “writing, commitment of the word to space, enlarges the potentiality of language almost beyond measure, restructures thought, and in the process converts a certain few dialects into ‘grapholects,’” or the shift into a “deep commitment to writing” (Ong 7-8). This emphasizes the importance of the written word, as societal conversions to a more humanist and fluid way of thinking was evolving through written rhetoric and societal events such as the salon society. The spread of Scholasticism, and its necessity for unearthing divine knowledge, impacted rhetoric, because orality was entirely elusive and inconsistent with true, factual evidence. This alone emphasizes the true change from the classical era’s ideas and usage of oral speech to convey an issue or argument. Since rhetoric was a more artistic style based off of one’s own general spoken thoughts, this field of oral intellect did not prosper well during the time period of the Renaissance. Because writers and orators were able to use a higher level intellectual thinking, this time period in many ways demoted rhetoric, because there was a higher necessity for a spread “in the generation of knowledge by scientific means,” rather than just speaking and writing based off of religious ideas or mere human thoughts (Bizzell 575). While rhetoric and the general, practiced style of argument from the classical and medieval eras was important in paving the way for the evolution of the written word, society was always interested in expanding the knowledge available to them, which is completely evident within the written texts derived from the Renaissance era.

Perhaps, the most interesting of writers to come from the Renaissance period was Peter Ramus, who strayed completely from the teachings of classicism, and questioned the orally based intellectual movement entirely. Ramus believed that “the ability to reason was innate in normal humans. One did not need to learn it from Aristotle or any other classical source,” which shows a huge difference in the world of rhetoric, which was once a field where the teachings of Aristotle and the like held a great deal of weight on the development of oration throughout history (Bizzell 675). Although the field of rhetoric during the Renaissance time period was still an area of study within the universities, it was seen more of a tool “consisting only of style and delivery,” as well as “style and delivery” based off of the morals of the speaker than a necessary area of study. Instead, the focus swayed to working on language as a whole, namely on the development of writing. Such is the case with Ramus’ ten topics of “causes, effects, subject, adjuncts, opposites, comparisons, names, divisions, definitions, and witnesses” in order to further oneself in the world of knowledge (Bizzell 676). Rhetoric then became more of an elementary area of intellect.

Ramus attempts to undermine the whole premise of rhetoric, as he clearly outlines in his Arguments in Rhetoric against Quintilian, which criticizes the works of Aristotle, Cicero, and Quintilian. Oral tradition seemed far from Peter Ramus’ good graces, as he states in his speech, “I wish that the scholars of rhetoric and dialectic would heed my advice and would sometimes think of the truth and usefulness of their subjects instead of tenaciously and obstinately quarreling over matters…” which emphasizes the lack of truth or validity to oral argument (Bizzell 682). Walter Ong also emphasizes that “the greatest awakening to the contrast between oral modes of thought and expression and written modes took place not in linguistics, descriptive or cultural, with in literary studies…” further supporting the notion that after the Classical Era, scholars were far more occupied in the study of writing (Ong 6).

In Arguments in Rhetoric against Quinitlian, Ramus also argues “Artistotle’s logic both lacked many virtues and abounded in faults. He left out many definitions and partitions of arguments; instead of one art of invention embracing the ten general topics…he created unfathomable darkness in his two books…” (Bizzell 681). Rather than being a time period that focused on the ideals of the medieval and ancient time periods, including the importance of oratorical skill, it inspired new, enlightened ways of thought; while “political oppression increasingly confined rhetoric to the study of style and to the declamatory rhetoric of the Second Sophistic,” Ramus focused on the importance of syllogism, eloquence, and syntax when developing actual written text (Bizzell 681-683). Ramus puts great stress upon the importance of being able to demonstrate oneself as a good dialectician, and to provide physical, written work, such as Walter Ong emphasizes within his essay. It can be concluded that during the time period of the Renaissance, it was becoming more of a foreign concept to focus on the classical teachings of rhetoric and to focus on more set rules of language in order to build a cohesive and strong argument. Arguments in Rhetoric Against Quintilian truly demonstrates the shift in intellectual importance that was occurring during the time of the Renaissance.

During this period of intellectual growth and scholarly pursuit, many of the classical teachings were being openly questioned, which shows a huge shift in attitude towards what was important in society during the classical and medieval eras, as rhetoric was completely losing importance with regards to orality. Ramus makes further claims within his Arguments in Rhetoric Against Quintilian, stating that Aristotle and Cicero believed “the stirring of emotions and passions” in order to appeal to a sort of moral philosophy, was what the practice of rhetoric emphasized (Bizzell 695). Because of the more definite stress upon structure as well as the use of proper language, artistic language during the Renaissance, such as that of Quintilian, Aristotle, or Cicero, was not viewed as something that was educational or even functional for the changing time period.

The Renaissance brought upon a huge shift in intellectual thinking, and the need for more educational basis for various theories and arguments was becoming more prevalent. As these new ideas and educational theories were spreading throughout Italy during the fourteenth century and onward, the humanist movement helped pave the way for writing to become more developed and socially important. Although the teachings of ancient rhetoric lost a great deal of zeal amongst Renaissance Italy, writing would not have been able to evolve into what it was becoming without the basis of the classical teachings. As texts and writing were becoming far more widespread, the whole scope of rhetoric was drastically changed. Linguistics itself evolved into an intellectual field that included far more than just the practice of orations. It allowed for new theories to be created, new intellectual processes to be examined, and d deeper, more sophisticated level of thinking, influencing the power of the written word, as oral speech lost its huge rhetorical power. 

Weekly Reading Assignment, ARCS chapter 9, Madeleine de Scudery and Erasmus

This week's reading assignment was quite beneficial, especially chapter 9 in Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students. Because the field of rhetoric is concerned not only with persuasion and language as a whole, the presentation and arrangement is, as Aristotle argued, the second most important part of rhetoric.

While arrangement is common knowledge, it is truly underrepresented. When an argument or issue is not presented correctly, it becomes inefficient, which destroys the element of being able to persuade and inform an audience on a given issue. It was also interesting to read about how writing is broken into four parts: the introduction, narration, proof and conclusion.


Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students also notes that the arrangement is necessary to show the importance of an issue, show how the issue affects the audience, how the issue affects everyone, and now the issue affects the general good of the community, which are all incredibly important aspects to consider when making an argument or taking a stance on an issue. Overall, this segment of the weekly writing was beneficial, because it highlighted the most important and essential keys to arranging a piece of writing correctly.

The Rhetorical Tradition segments were also interesting, as they highlighted more Renaissance and humanist educated writers during this time period. I enjoyed reading specifically about the aristocratic, French lifestyle, as well as the salon society lifestyle. This lifestyle was most interesting to me, because it seems as if the philosophical mindset of those partaking in this culture were more susceptible to allowing women to have a voice and part within society, as well.

I would like to learn more about the salon society time period, as well as how these new cultural practices were altering writing in its entirety. This time period seems to have been very crucial in the shaping of society, both culturally and in the world of writing and rhetoric.

ARCS Chapter 8, RT Margaret Fell and Thomas Wilson

Chapter 8 of Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students was an interesting breakdown of what extrinsic proofs are, and how they are helpful when developing a strong, rhetorical argument. This segment of the textbook discusses how empirical information, such as facts, data, artifacts, and testimony are all helpful when developing an argument, yet must be truly analyzed carefully in order to make a valid argument. The editors of this book state that these parts within an argument must be both accurate and trustworthy, and that without those two aspects, an argument will not be as strong or as relevant.

I thought this section was very important, because it gave insight as to how a rhetor can develop a stronger argument by appealing to the right authoritative figures as well as factual information to back up their own arguments. In this chapter, community authorities and proximate authorities were addressed. Community authorities seem far more important than proximate authorities, because they must gain a high level and trust and respect within the community that they are speaking out to. Proximate authorities, on the other hand, merely observe disputed states of affairs, but don't necessarily speak out to an audience or an entire community in the ways in which community authorities do. Although there was a lot of background information provided on extrinsic proofs, it is mostly important to realize that these argumentative aspects help to overall strengthen any given argument, because there is a huge credibility to one's ethos. By doing this, a person is able to provide relevant information and arguments on a given subject, as well as detach themselves emotionally and ideologically from issues.

While factual evidence from authoritative figures is important to provide within an argument, Crowley and Hawhee suggest that a rhetor shouldn't accept facts at face value, and when using factual evidence, the networks of interpretation are incredibly important to consider to making a valid argument.

The two assigned reading sections within The Rhetorical Tradition were also interesting, however, I am curious to learn more as to how Margaret Fell obtained such high educational and rhetorical status, even during the humanism period of the Renaissance. I thought this section was empowering, because it discussed how women, although still subordinate to men in society during this time period, were able to make more strides individually through the power of education. This educational process overall helped women to gain more social recognition, in that they were more educationally stimulated and empowered.

The segment on Thomas Wilson was interesting, because he seems to be one of the only Renaissance writers so far that did not seem to stray so far from Classical Rhetoric, as he studied the humanist curriculum of Erasmus. This portion seemed to focus more on the invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery, as well as the dialectic and logic of the Classical time period.

Weekly Reading Assignment-Renaissance Rhetoric, pg. 553-580

This assigned reading was especially interesting, because the historical significance of this time period was extremely profound, in that it helped contribute and shape the ways in which society viewed educational aspects, including the arts, sciences, mathematics, and developing new theories on various things. This was an extraordinarily pivotal time in history, because the Renaissance helped shape the whole idea on the pursuit of human powers as well as defining true knowledge. While new ideas were forming, there was a huge stray from the Roman Catholic Church, and its teachings and beliefs were truly being questioned, as new ideas and practices were beginning to evolve during the time period of the Renaissance.

Also during this time period, The Rhetorical Tradition focused on how the educational attention was still diverting back to the classical teachings of ancient Greek and Roman society, and how these classical ideas were being used to develop and establish new theory and ways of life and thinking. This time period was categorized so heavily by the movement of humanism, which sparked a huge intellectual movement throughout this time period as well as region in France and elsewhere in Europe. There was far more emphasis on religious tolerance and more women were pursuing education, as well.

This segment of the textbook was extremely helpful, not only examining the historical time period, but also how there was a huge focus on style in the evolution of rhetoric. While rhetoric was still being used for a variety of reasons, it was, during this time period, less focused on the political aspect, and more seen as an artistic and creative tool.

I believe that this segment of the text will be responsible for the turning point of rhetoric, and how it has evolved into the field that it is today, because there was so much tolerance and much more freedom and flexibility during this time period, straying from the church.

Imitatios Reflection Paper

Katherine Lee 11106264

English 360, Section 1

October 4, 2011

Imitatios Reflection

            The entire first segment of this class on ancient rhetoric has truly been thought provoking, and the historical context in which rhetoric in its entirety, and how it has evolved and progressed throughout time, has provided an alternative way of looking at this area of study overall. By being exposed to a piece of classical text written by an ancient rhetorician and orator, the practice of examining and critically analyzing these ancient documents helped to broaden my prior knowledge on the subject of rhetoric, and I was able to apply the various tools and speech methods to my own writing. Although it was difficult to dissect the language found within a speech of a classical rhetorician, there was a strong connection between what was being taught within the classroom as well as what has been taught from the assigned texts, and applying it to my own writing of this speech. This exercise, I found, was meant to not only expose myself and my peers to this ancient style of language, but to encourage us to literally practice these techniques, as well. This exercise was not only helpful in the exposure to different types of ancient rhetoric, but also, there was growth in that connection, which helped me to develop my writing in many ways. By doing an assignment such as this, I felt as if I developed a true exposure and connection to the world of rhetoric.

            For this particular assignment, I chose Alexander the Great’s speech, which was given to his troops when his desire to expand his holdings into India seemed to outweigh the temptations of returning home, as well as the overall exhaustion of his men, who battled with him throughout Europe. However, this speech was, and still is, extremely powerful, and contains the strong use of rhetorical tools that ultimately led to the persuasion of Alexander’s men to continue on in the fight for greatness. Perhaps, it can even be suggested that his stylistic methods of persuasion are used within various forms of rhetoric in modern day society, as well.

The sort of deliberate, yet humbling methods of speech that Alexander used within his speech were incredibly difficult to emulate. His attitude throughout the entire speech was motivational and truly persuasive, yet humanly and humbling, because the audience could see how much he truly aimed to relate directly to his troops rather than try and convince them of something solely using his authority and power over them. Overall, Alexander the Great uses a great deal of pathos to appeal to his troops. He uses various methods of rhetoric, and appeals to the prospect of eternal glory and personal pride that would be guaranteed with the continuation on in the battle to expanding the empire. Alexander also appeals to logos, because he provides examples of how he and his troops had expanded their holdings. He questions his men as to why they would not want to continue on in the conquest for more, given all that they had gained with their power and militaristic strength. Alexander’s use of ethos is also evident, yet in a more subtle tone and in with a less blatant appeal to it. Because he was the general of these troops, he was able to use a more authoritative air and gain the automatic respect from his men for being the great and powerful leader that he was.

In order to do this paper, I felt it necessary to appeal to my classmates in the same ways in which Alexander the Great did with his troops. It was difficult to emulate the way in which his speech flows; yet, I felt that by the end of the speech, I was able to gain insight into classical rhetoric as well as form a connection with the various rhetorical devices and arguments. By analyzing the ancient rhetorical speeches, it was blatantly evident that the rhetorical devices that were developed in the past have truly formed the modern world of rhetoric. The ways in which modern classrooms teach the field of rhetoric are very deeply rooted in the teachings and methods from the past. By doing this assignment, the exposure to actual examples of classical rhetoric allowed me to see exactly how to cohesively put what has been taught within the classroom setting into developing a strong, functioning speech or other piece of writing. While it is oftentimes easy to make arguments, many people do not understand the essence of making strong and decisive points in order to convey a personal thought or message. By dissecting one piece of classical literature and applying the perceptions of said writings, I felt as if I learned a great deal about the overall process of making and developing my own strong arguments, based off the readings as well as the deep analysis of a piece classical rhetoric.

In order to execute and construct this speech, I appealed to the ethos, pathos, and logos of my peers, in order to try and convince them to attend graduate school after their time at Washington State University. This was difficult, because I had to attempt to appear as an authoritative figure, and use the same methods that the powerful Alexander did with his troops. I focused on a topic that I am truly passionate about, and I felt as though that passion and interest resonates throughout my Alexander the Great speech emulation. While it was difficult to connect to my peers on the levels that Alexander did with his troops, being able to conform to the methods and stylistic methods of him helped me truly to connect to both myself as well as this great and ancient oration, and its complicated language. In this sense, this project forced a sense of connection and comfortableness with the otherwise unfamiliar world of ancient rhetoric prior to this course.

I truly believe that this project was beneficial in a variety of ways. While one can devote a great deal of time to reading and studying ancient rhetoric, one cannot truly understand and comprehend the presented material until it is actually experienced. By creating a modern speech based off of the structure and rhetorical conventions found within a classical rhetorical speech, it truly shed light on how profoundly ancient rhetoric has impacted modern speech and language today. The sense of language that was used in the past truly has perhaps altered and matured the ways in which society communicates today. Without deeply analyzing a piece of classical rhetorical speech or literature, the connection between ancient rhetoric and the development of the world of modern rhetoric would not have been made otherwise.

Imitatios-Alexander the Great Speech

Katherine Lee 11106264

English 360, Section 1

September 22, 2011

Imitatios

I will venture a guess that a majority of you within this class will be at a crossroads in your life soon. Your undergraduate education will be coming to an end, and you must consider your post-graduation plans with great care. Will you, my fellow classmates, be joining me in the fight for the continuation of academic excellence by attending graduate school?

The process of deciding to attend graduate school is life changing in an infinite number of ways. Though I can understand the uncertainty that comes with the prospect of graduate school, it very well could be the best decision of your lives. Although filled with economic strife and various political issues, this nation is filled with opportunities for success. We must seize and strive for this great and esteemed level of education after our time here at this particular university. You have conquered the admissions process and the rigorousness of your first years as an undergraduate student. You have strived for the best possible for yourself, and all of the obstacles that have come your way have contributed to your overall experience at this university. Let me remind you: you have made it to this point in your lives, and have every opportunity and capability to continue to strive for more. I employ you to seek reason: do not just settle for a mindless job as soon as you graduate from here. Live by your dreams and your passions, because the possibilities for you truly are endless. With a post-undergraduate degree, your higher level of education will further your knowledge on something you are truly passionate about, open the door to more career choices, and secure your chance at higher economic stability, setting you apart from those who do not continue onto graduate school. And, with the current economic standing of this nation and the lack of available jobs, why wouldn’t you want to pursue a higher degree, rather than merely settling for something right after you graduate from Washington State University? This opportunity is yours for the taking! Those who won’t take advantage will weep at the advantages that you will reap from furthering your education, should you choose to continue on in the world of academia.

For, a driven person is one who strives for the highest level of intellect. Such action is the most rewarding. However, if you choose not to partake in this particular endeavor, you only limit and hinder your potential and worth in your time here in this world. It is, without a doubt, that America, the land of the free, is a great and strong nation.  To be able to pursue such a high level of education makes you a worthy and intellectually strong and stimulated being within this nation, a nation that is revered for Her bountiful opportunity and glory.

Our forefathers before us would not have wanted us to pass upon our chance at greatness. We must find our own inner strength. Furthering our education is, after all, an act of courage and mental strength. The greatest leaders within this nation would not have gotten to where they are, today, had they not pursued their educational excellence. Are you aware, that the doctors who have saved millions of lives, the lawyers that have defended the goodwill of this nation, and the like of equally esteemed career fields, did not end their pathways to success and greatness straight upon their completion of their undergraduate studies? Many before us have made the conscious decision to make a difference amongst those who lack the tenacity to become great like them. Those who have truly strengthened the foundation and backbone of this nation chose to persevere on with their educational studies, and have ultimately contributed to the overall betterment of America. I encourage you to not shy away from the greatness that stands before you.

I cannot force you to commit to graduate school. However, those who do not partake in the pursuit of furthering their educational journeys will be mere shadows in the presence of greatness, which each of you have the opportunity to achieve. I do not blame you for wanting to progress forward in the working world, but I am merely encouraging you to examine the benefits that would surely come of graduate school. I encourage you, my fellow classmates, to put yourself to the true test in your pursuit towards greatness.